Are You The Only Person on LinkedIn without a RESUME

Are You The Only Person on LinkedIn without a RESUME There’s no real situation where not having a resume is acceptable these days. You want to be ready to go, with a sheet of paper to back you up, if you need to let someone know about your career history and accomplishments. There are too many steps in the hiring process now to rely on that friend you worked with one time will be able to hook you up with your next incoming gig. Practice framing every project you work on- whether you’re a copywriter or a graphic designer, a marketing consultant or a specialized salesperson- in language someone can understand. You need a position title, company, location, description of work, and dates the work was performed for every single one!Here are some professionals who often don’t have resumes and need to get with the program:Long TermersPeople who’ve been in the same job for a while and would be willing to move on, even if they’re not actually looking. You need to be ready if the next great opportunity comes al ong.Business OwnersEven if you’re an entrepreneur with your own name on the door, clients may want to see who you’ve worked with or approach you about collaborating.New ParentsWhether you’re tag-teaming the double-earner lifestyle or one of you has decided on child-rearing full time, odds are you still have some projects filling your precious free time. Volunteer involvement, blogging, photography, project management- even if the volume isn’t what you were used to pre-baby, demonstrating continuity of work can be crucial to rejoining the workforce full-time once the kiddo is back in school.Literally Everyone†¦ Yes, YouSome day you will be searching for work again. Make updating or customizing your resume at 10-minute task instead of a multi-hour search and rescue mission. Keep it live and up-to-date on LinkedIn, accessible as a Google doc and pdf, and retain a copy of every version in case you need to go back for a specific bit of experience. Future you will thank current you.  Why Everyone Needs A Resume – Even YOU  Read More at Careerealism

Fiscal Policy in the US essays

Fiscal Policy in the US essays Real plans for real people. This was the coined theme for the Bush campaign back in September. As far as I can see with his tax cut plan in doesnt involve real people. It may just depend on your definition of the term, but the real people of America are the middle class, hard working families. Bushs tax plan is now said to be $1.6 trillion over a ten year period of time. Most of this money will go to the upper brackets, the better off. Granted they do pay the most money, but then when you think about it, why do they need the cut? Can they not afford to pay their taxes? In this economic time of a feared recession our government should be doing everything in their power to avoid this situation. Having a prolonged tax cut does nothing to help the economy now. By the time the money is given back we and more than likely to have already succeeded this economic down low. The economist will tell you the in order to dodge this the money must be given back now. If the money is given back earlier there is a better chance of people spending it and stimulating economic activity. When looked at by this point of view I most definitely agree with Laura DAndrea Tyson when she said, Bush wants a large tax cut for political reasons, not economic ones. When Robert J. Barro discuses how he thinks the tax cut will stimulate investment and growth, increase incentives to work and save, and lower the amount of money Congress can spend, I find myself disagreeing with him. As said earlier Bushs tax cut will do very little, if anything, to help stimulate growth. Ten years is a very long time. As for increasing the incentive to work and save, I find it hard to want to save my money when they take it away for taxes. If you want to give an incentive to save, why not turn to VATs instead of income taxes? I know this would be an almos ...

Behaviorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Behaviorism - Essay Example It is built upon certain observed characteristics of adults, which affect the way in which they learn and relate new information (Knowles et al, 2005). Due to the distinguishing characteristics of adult learners, certain psychological theories must be applied in order to maximise on learning potential which requires several actions to be taken, such as assessing the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating a systematic instructional format based upon this. To succeed, it is dependent upon pedagogically tested psychological theories, the principal approaches being behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism. Primarily characterised by their individual interpretations of what constitutes ‘learning’ and how it occurs, these approaches provide instructors with verified strategies and techniques for facilitating learning. This essay will discuss the defining characteristics and necessary conditions for adult learning as postu lated by theorist Malcolm Knowles. It will then examine behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism as general approaches to learning with particular emphasis on the superiority of constructivism in this context and how it can be applied to adult learning. One of the central principles which surround the teaching of adult learners is that of individual experience. â€Å"As a person matures he accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning† (Smith, 2011). Unlike children, adults have inevitably built up a wealth of personal experience which can be utilized in a way which can help learning, such as relating new information to previous experience, recalling previous experience, and/or using familiar examples to apply learning to unfamiliar concepts. Teaching strategies which build upon experiential learning will be an extension of everyday life (Knowles et al, 2005). Adult learners partake in a process which sees them reflect, dra w inference from and conceptualize, based upon previous individual experience. As this wealth of experience is seen as the richest resource of information for the learner, it must be pointed out that individual experience is fundamentally biased and of an entirely subjective nature. This implies that new information may be interpreted in different ways, which can be advantageous as it allows for new ideas and opinions, but can also have its disadvantages regarding personal bias. A second principle which is determined to be of special significance to adult learning is that of the self-concept. Within the paradigm of learning, self-concept relates to the movement of an individual’s perception of themselves as a self-directed person rather than being dependent upon others. Adults are viewed as being responsible and fully accountable for their own decisions and therefore must be treated as autonomous learners. Due to this perspective, autonomy is seen as vitally important for thi s theory. In its broadest sense, self-directed learning describes a set of actions in which potential learners take the initiative in identifying their learning needs and goals, and evaluating learning outcomes. The steps involved in working through such a process have generated several model which have since been re-imagined into a more interactive design which takes into account the nature and contextual elements of the learning (Cooper, 2009). Readiness to learn, or motivation to learn, is another

Curriculum Foundations Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Curriculum Foundations - Research Paper Example The first part is to cover all the important events up to the end of the civil war while the second part to proceed with all the reconstructions through to the present. It aims and overcoming all the shortcomings of the old curriculum and ensure that students can effectively, understand and appreciate our heritage and the manner the country evolved. In this way, they will gain a better understanding of the current problems we face and develop a good strategy on how we should move to make the most desirable changes. This will be targeting all the elementary schools, the junior high schools and the high schools of Mesa Unified School District, Arizona. Firstly, the new curriculum aims at aligning with the standards set by the state, which is one of the major requirements since the curriculum must be compatible with the guidelines set by both the state and the federal government. Each instructor will be capable of measuring the standards of their lessons to ensure that the students get the right content effectively. Secondly, the curriculum aims at providing a detailed explanation of the significance of one historical occasion relative to the other events. This is to enlighten them to understand how one event contributed and shaped the occurrence of the other. Thirdly, it also intends to impart the required critical as well as creative thinking abilities as the students move to college to critically anslyse the events and make meaningful judgements. Lastly, the curriculum aims at ensuring that students can clearly understand how the past events shaped our present status and make excellent plans for our future. Although it is the oldest approach of all the existing approaches to curiculum development, the behavioral approach is the most relevant one to employ. The approach, according to Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) will pave the way for the specification of the goals as well as the objectives of the curriculum that we clearly, understand. The approach also

Intangible Heritage. Why is the idea of 'intangible heritage' so Essay

Intangible Heritage. Why is the idea of 'intangible heritage' so important - Essay Example Initially, cultural heritage only comprised materialistic artefacts, tangible heritage sites and relic objects that hold religious or cultural significance for certain localities. However, subsequently the definition broadened to include intangible events, rituals and practices that reflected ancient traditions and revived the spirits of sacred beliefs.1 This can include anthems, heroic stories, oral arts, rituals, celebrations and skillful tactics that all relate back to historical traditions inherited from ancestral generations. Various authors have conducted comprehensive studies about national heritage practices and historical artefacts. Most of them have varying opinions regarding the preservation of ancient rituals and some claim that it requires significant level of professionalism and expertise to safeguard or revive the fading cultural heritage as any alteration to originality and spirit of it might enrage societies that pay high regard to such customs.2 Intangible heritage plays a significant part in preserving cultural fortitude in today’s modern world of technology. This phenomenon assists the newer generations to develop an understanding of intercultural differences, familial histories and need for paying homage to all types of ethnicities. Such heritage is also valuable as it enables a society to roll over acquired technical expertise and learnt knowledge to upcoming generations.3 Thus, it is evident that each cultural heritage event has its own significance and needs to be preserved for subsequent generations. This paper focuses on following intangible heritage objects and discusses their respective cultural significance. Music / Performing Arts a) The arts of the Meddah, public storytellers, Turkey This ritual originated from Turkish theatrical event namely Meddahlik, called after meddah who was the storyteller performing this act. It was initially conducted in Turkish language and later was supported in many other languages as it gained popularity in other regions of Asia, including the Middle East and Caucasus. The theme and content of this act was wholly arranged by the meddah who handpicked various legendary songs and historical fables, varying according to the nature and size of audience and context of the event. He would carry out various short entertaining acts, funny parodies and satirical comedy stunts, all influenced by recent political events and tailored according to interests of spectators. This heritage was highly educational and provided a platform for different performers to demonstrate their talents. Turkish people always held high regards for this artistic masterpiece of work as they find it very amusing and creative. The event itself was one of the most anticipated events by the Turkish ancestors as there was no other form of entertainment back then. It was a significant event as it enabled people to meet and socialize with other citizens in nearby localities. Moreover, the rhetorical comedy relat ed to latest series of events happening around the nation was helpful in developing a sense of skepticism towards credibility of political leaders and national government bodies. Overall, the event was a true source of education, entertainment and face-to-face social networking for thousands of people under a single roof. However, in recent years, the pure form of meddah storyteller ritual has faded away and been replaced largely by mass media including television broadcasting, standup comedy shows and movie cinemas. b) The polyphonic singing of the Aka Pygmies, Central Africa The

Obama and Romney Essay Example for Free

Obama and Romney Essay In the midst of a heated presidential race two great leaders are vying for the affection of all of America. On the left side we have our current president Mr. Barrack Obama and on the right side his opponent Mr. Mitt Romney. On paper both are outstandingly qualified candidates and both have been trusted to hold a position of leadership over large numbers of people. Mitt Romney built his foundation through a strong career in business before becoming a politician, while President Obama stuck to the legal side of things building up his reputation as a civil rights lawyer and activist. In this review of both candidates I will attempt to unbiasedly inform the reader of their qualifications as powerful leaders including their foundations and backgrounds, their accomplishments, and their leadership capabilities. It seems justifiable to start with educational backgrounds as that is where both candidates began to really assume leadership positions. In the next section of this essay I will try to identify their earlier careers and how those experiences may qualify them to hold office as the President of the United States. Both candidates come from very prestigious educational backgrounds. Obama moved from Honolulu Hawaii to Los Angeles in 1979 to attend the Occidental College. It was there that he made his first ever public speech vocalizing his disdain for the Occidental College’s policy of apartheid pertaining to South Africa. In 1981 he transferred to Columbia University in New York City, where he majored in political science and with a focus on international relations, he graduated with a bachelor of arts in 1983. After some years of work at two corporations and a couple more as a community organizer which I will get into later Barack began to attend Harvard Law School in 1988, where he was selected as an editor of the Harvard Law Review and later became its president, being the first African American to ever do so. In 1991 he graduated with a J. D. magna cum laude. Mitt Romney’s education began at Stanford University in the year of 1965. It was there that he perhaps took his first political stance in his participation in the staging of a counter protest against a group staging a sit in at the university administration building in opposition to draft status tests. Romney left the country to stay in France as a Mormon missionary in 1966; his stay would last for 30 months fulfilling a traditional rite of passage in his family. Though it is not traditional education I feel obligated to state that during this stay in France Romney showed true leadership skills in becoming co-president of his mission where he oversaw the work of 175 others. Upon his return to the States he began attending Brigham Young University in 1969. Due to the culturally conservative nature of BYU Romney naturally managed to stay out of the radical turmoil that came along with the 60’s and 70’s and became president of the all male cougars club booster organization and it was in these years that he showed a new found discipline in his studies that he somewhat lacked before. In 1971 he earned a bachelor of arts in English with highest honors and gave a commencement speech to the whole of BYU. Wanting to pursue a path in business Mitt heeded his father’s advice and put off a career to attend a Juris Doctor/Master of Business Administration four year program coordinated between Harvard Law School and Harvard Business School. He graduated cum laude from this program in 1975. He was named a baker scholar for graduating in the top five percent of his class. Both of these men have incredibly impressive educational accomplishments and worked hard to earn a good social standing and in doing so gained advantageous leads amongst their competitors on their career paths. Our current president began his career In between his attendance at Columbia University and Harvard at the Business International Corporation and then at the New York Public Interest Research Group. Just before entering Harvard he worked as a community organizer in Chicago. During his summers at Harvard he worked in the law offices of Sidley Austin as well as Hopkins Sutter. After his graduation he accepted a position as Visiting Law and Government Fellow at the University of Chicago Law School to work on his first book Dreams Of my Father which was published in 1995. From 1992 through 1996 he was a lecturer at the University of Chicago Law School, and from 1996 through 2004 he served as senior lecturer teaching constitutional law. Obama continues to show his comfort in a leadership role as he directed Illinois’s Project Vote, which was a voter registration campaign where he oversaw ten staffers and seven hundred volunteer registrars. This project achieved its goal of registering 1500,000 unregistered African American Citizens. In 1993 e also joined the Davis, Miner, Barnhill Galland law firm where he specialized in civil rights litigation and neighborhood economic development. Obama served on board of directors for the Woods Fund of Chicago, and of the Joyce Foundation, which helped to fund the development of underprivileged communities in Chicago. To add to this already astounding list of accomplishments the young Obama would serve as founding president and chairman of the board of directors for the Chicago Annenberg Challenge 1995 to 1999. I would like to note that thus far Barack Obama has proved to show a real sincere care for the development of his community and his race. From 1991 to 2002 he has fought for what he believes is right and through his career choices and political actions has shown himself to be a credible and intelligent young leader. Romney’s early career which is also quite impressive holds just as much esteem as Obama’s and though it follows a different path his accomplishments should also be very highly regarded and held to an esteem just as high as his running mates. Upon his graduation from Harvard in 1975, Romney was recruited by several firms but chose to join the Boston Consulting Group, working as a management consultant for a variety of companies better preparing him for his later roles as a chief executive and further leadership positions. In 1977, he was hired by a management consulting firm in Boston name Bain Company. The more admirable thing about Bain Company that should be accredited to Romney’s decision to work there is that instead of just providing quick consulting to a company and then parting soon after he could now completely submerge himself into his clients business and continue to work with them until changes actually began to materialize. This really shows a concern for his clients well being and for the passion of Romney to better the lives of those that surround him. Within just a few years Romney was considered by the firm one their best consultants, and Romney assumed the position of vice president of this firm in 1978. In 1984 Romney left Bain Company to start the spin off private equity investment firm called Bain Capital. AS CEO of this company he managed to become personally responsible for their success by investing in companies like Staples Inc, Dominoes Pizza, Sealy Corporation, and Sports Authority. Overall both of these men have proven themselves to be outstanding leaders, and in comparison it would seem that Obama is in a mindset that deals with his community and the well being of his race and all of the people he oversees. Romney’s mindset is that of a businessman and he exudes the qualities that a great leader should possess. Both have served terms in office, and before becoming our president Obama was elected an Illinois state senator in 1996. While in office he gained support for legislation that reformed ethics and health care laws. He sponsored a law that increased tax credits for low income workers, negotiated welfare reform, and promoted increased subsidies for childcare. In 2005 Barack Obama was sworn in as a U. S. Senator. And in 2008 he became the President of the United States of America. Romney has held office as the 70th governor of Massachusetts in 2003. In conclusion both men are great candidates for presidency and have proven themselves time after time to be successful leaders. It is up to you to decide which one holds a better plan for our future America. Whether you think that we need to focus on our nation’s financial crisis which might be right up Mitt Romney’s ally having done so for states and other businesses so many times before, or if you want America to focus on the well being of minorities, workers, women, and education, which is where Obama might take the reins. It is up to you to decide which would make the better leader when you cast your vote in November.

Study of cognitive linguistics

Study of cognitive linguistics Before we go to cognitive linguistics, we should answer some questions, which are very important to those who make a study of linguistics. Everybody knows that there are many rules in language. à ¥Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ «, for example, is used to show our warmth to people: à ¥Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ «Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¯Ã‚ ·Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¿Ã¢â‚¬ º, à ¥Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ «Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¯Ã‚ ·Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ , à ¥Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ «Ãƒ ¥- Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ °Ã‚ ´, à ¥Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ «Ãƒ ¥- Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ ¨Ã…’ ¶, à ¥Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ «Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã†â€™Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ªÃƒ ¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ ¦Ã… ¾Ã…“à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ However, à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢is used to indicate goodbye: à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ µÃ‚ °, à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã†â€™, à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¥- , à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ Ã…  , à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¾(Cantonese), à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¥Ã… ½Ã¢â‚¬ ¹(Cantonese, said to someone who goes cycling), etc. Because these rules in Chinese do not exist in English, we cannot say *Come in quickly, *Sit down quickly, or *Walk s lowly. Rules like this are concerned with use of words. At the same time, there are rules in grammar. In English, for example, I is followed by am, and you by are, and he by is. 1) Are such rules in language formed gradually through everyday use or prescribed by linguists? (It is very important for us to answer such questions correctly before we are engaged in making a study of linguistics.) 2) All language users can speak their mother tongue correctly, fluently and appropriately. An illiterate woman in Guangzhou, for example, can speak Cantonese correctly, fluently and appropriately. Do you think she knows Cantonese grammar? 3) Some people, even some university teachers say that many great scholars have made a lot of research and published many books on linguistics and grammar. These people think that the famous scholars have solved all language problems and theres nothing left for us to make a study. Whats your opinion about this? 4) Language is always changing. It is one of the properties of language. Do you think it is possible to avoid its change or it is necessary to do so? 5) There are many linguistic schools studying language in the world. Can you explain why there are so many schools? (Cognitive linguistics is one of the so many schools. I dont know if you are interested in it or not. For me, I firmly believe it and also interested in it, because it can explain many phenomena in language. The explanations from the perspective of cognitive linguistics help us know about how language is formed and why it is formed in this way instead of the other way. Most importantly, such explanations can help both teachers teach foreign languages and learners learn them effectively.) 6) Where is meaning? In order to understand these sentences we must call upon our knowledge about the world, which does not reside in the sentences or in any of the words of the sentences. (Scollon Scollon 2000: 7) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦we tend to look for meaning in words themselves, but we are incorrect if we think that words possess meaning. It is more accurate to say that people possess meaning and that words elicit these meanings. (Samovar et al 2000: 123) Language does not itself do the cognitive building-it just give us minimal, but sufficient, clues for finding the domains and principles appropriate for building in a given situation. Once these clues are combined with already existing configurations, available cognitive principles, and background framing, the appropriate construction can take place, and the result far exceeds any overt explicit information. This fundamental property of language is counterintuitive: In our folk theory, it is the words that carry the meaning: We say what we mean, we put meaning into words, and so on. The difference between the folk-theoretic conception and the actual (backstage) reality goes unnoticed for very interesting reasons. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ We notice only the tip of the iceberg-the words-and we attribute all the rest to common sense. (Fauconnier 1994: xviii) Language does not carry meaning, it guides it. As Mark Turner felicitously put it: Expressions do not mean; they are prompts for us to construct meanings by working with processes we already know. In no sense is the meaning of (an) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ utterance right there in the words. When we understand an utterance, we in no sense are understanding just what the words say; the words themselves say nothing independent of the richly detailed knowledge and powerful cognitive processes we bring to bear (Turner 1991: 206) Language, as we use it, is but the tip of the iceberg of cognitive construction. As discourse unfolds, much is going on behind the scenes: New domains appear, links are forged, abstract mappings operate, internal structure emerges and spreads, viewpoint and focus keep shifting. Everyday talk and commonsense reasoning are supported by invisible, highly (p. xxii) abstract, mental creations, which grammar helps to guide, but does not by itself define. (Fauconnier 1994: xxiii) On this view, words do not really have meanings, nor do sentences have meanings: meanings are something that we construe, using the properties of linguistic elements as partial clues, alongside non-linguistic knowledge, information available from context, knowledge and conjectures regarding the state of mind of hearers and so on. (Croft Cruse 2004: 98) The core idea in Cognitive Linguistics is that meanings are mental entities in conceptual space. Meanings are in peoples minds. They are not independent entities in the external world, as is the case in objectivist models. The external world is only indirectly relevant in that meanings are constrained by how human beings perceive of the world. The second question concerns the relation between lexical items and meaning. Lexical items map on to concepts, and meaning is the relation between the lexical item and the domain matrix that it activates. Lexical meaning is constrained by encyclopaedic knowledge, conventionalized mappings between lexical items and concepts, conventional modes of thought in different contexts and situational frames. (à ¥Ã… ½Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ³Ã‚ ¨Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¡In cognitive approaches to meaning, all linguistic expressions are profiled according to a base (Langacker 1987a), or a frame (Fillmore (1982), an idealized cognitive model of a situation (Lakoff 1987) or a cycle of contextualization and decontextualization of word meaning based on linguistic and encyclopaedic knowledge (Warren 1999). All these constructs represent presupposed information in an expression that the speaker infers in situations. In my model the appropriate construal is employed on the basis of such knowledge. See also Croft (forthcoming) for a similar approach to verbs.) Meanings are thus not inherent in the lexical items as such, but they are evoked by lexical items. Moreover, there is no purely linguistic level of representation that is intermediate between concepts and lexical items, and there is no static one-to-one relationship between lexical items and meanings. (à ¥Ã… ½Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ³Ã‚ ¨Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¡This is the case in approaches to meaning that assume a lexicon consisting of formal features, e.g. Bierwich Schreuder (1992), Levelt (1989), Pustejovsky (1998), Borschev Partee (2001), Jackendoff (2002).) Multiple readings are natural and expected in a dynamic usage-based model. The components of the framework are shown in Figure 1. The third question concerns the dynamics of language in terms of synchronic flexibility and diachronic change. Different readings in different contexts emerge from the intention that activates the expression or the wish to interpret the expression in a relevant way in order to obtain socially viable (capable of working, functioning, or developing adequately; capable of existence and development as an independent unit) mappings between words and concepts. In other words, cognitive processes (construals) operate on the conceptual structures on all occasions of use. These operations are the source of all readings, conventional as well as ad hoc (used for specific or immediate needs) contextual readings, and possible lexical change takes place through new conventional, entrenched links between linguistic expressions and conceptual structures (Paradis 2003b). (Paradis, 2004: 53) The precise semantic contribution of any word is a function of the utterance context in which it is embedded, and, moreover, the sorts of (conceptual) knowledge these lexical entities provide access to. In other words, words dont have meanings in and of themselves. Rather meaning is a function of the utterance in which a word is embedded, and the complex processes of lexical concept integration. (Evans, 2006:492) More recently, a number of scholars have suggested that in fact word-meaning is less a discrete body of circumscribed knowledge. Rather, words serve as points of access to larger-scale encyclopaedic knowledge structures, which are potentially vast in scope as argued in detail below. On this view, words provide access to what I will refer to as a semantic potential, with different sorts of knowledge being potentially activated. (Evans, 2006: 493) One way of thinking about the meaning of words is to see them as tools for causing speakers to access specific parts of their knowledge base (Moore Carling 1982:11, quoted in Lee, 2001:5). At any given moment, individuals have a huge store of knowledge available to them (Lee, 2001:5). Meaning is not a property of utterances but a product of the interaction between an utterance and a human beings knowledge base (Lee, 2001:12). The function of the noun cat in the utterance The cat wants something to eat is to cause the addressee to home in on (meaning to find) a very specific region of that knowledge base-specifically on those neural structures that constitute her store of knowledge concerning cats in general and the family cat in particular. (Lee, 2001:5) Meaning in language can be summarized as: 1) To understand words or sentences is to call upon the knowledge about the world. 2) The knowledge does not reside in the sentences or in any of the words of the sentences. That is, words do not possess meaning. 3) People possess meaning and words as tools elicit meanings. 2. What is cognitive linguistics? 2.1 The importance of cognitive linguistics Cognitive linguistics is expected to be one of the most important approaches in the field of linguistics in the 21 century. Some linguists even say that the 21 century will belong to cognitive linguistics. Cognitive linguistics originated from America in 1970s the last century. Many linguists in China have turned to cognitive linguistics. Papers about cognitive linguistics, papers introducing cognitive linguistics and papers analyzing language structures with cognitive approaches can be found in almost every academic journal or magazine related to language study in China in recent years. If we pay little attention to this approach, we are sure to lag behind. That is why we offer you the course of cognitive linguistics. 2.2 The definition of cognitive linguistics As you know, each linguistic school has its own attitudes towards language and its own approach to language. So does cognitive linguistics. According to this textbook, cognitive linguistics is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize our experience of the world (p.F36). (Who would like to explain conceptualize our experience? When we say conceptualize our experience, we mean that we have the idea for our experience or that we form concepts of our experience.) 2.3 The objective of cognitive linguistics The objective of cognitive linguistics is to investigate and to study cognitive or mental structure and organization by analyzing cognitive strategies used by humans in thinking, storing information, comprehending, and producing language. (Bussmann, Hadumod. 2000. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. p.80. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press Routledge) 2.4 Two different meanings of the term cognitive linguistics It is very important to notice that cognitive linguistics has two different meanings, which come from the word cognitive. It has the following two meanings: 1) cognitive related to knowledge (This is the logical view. This view accepts logical rules and objective definitions.) 2) cognitive related to human experience based on practical and empirical knowledge.(This is the cognitive linguistics we mean. Such cognitive linguistics includes three views or approaches: the experiential view, the prominence view and the attentional view.) 3. Experiential view: Different explanations of Our car has broken down 3.1 Traditional explanation Traditionally, most teachers use the following methods in class: 1) paraphrasing the meanings of words 2) analyzing the clause pattern 3) discussing the use of the present perfect tense How do you help your students with this sentence? Talk about your teaching, please? If someone does not know the word car, the teacher just tells him that it means 4-wheeled motor vehicle. Usually the teacher takes into consideration the so-called difficult points. In this sentence, the difficult point may be the phrasal verb break down, which has at least as many as 35 meanings according to a dictionary. The first four meanings are: 1) to become separated into pieces or fragments 2) to become cracked or split 3) to give way; collapse 4) to become unusable or inoperative/stop operating or functioning e.g. The television broke down. The 4th meaning is suitable to explain the phrasal verb break down, so the teacher chooses stop operating or functioning to replace the original phrase, such as Our car has stopped operating or Our car has stopped functioning. 3.2 Explanation with the logical view (of modern linguistics) In the logical view, some objective semantic features must be found. The following are a set of objective semantic features of car: 1) inanimate 2) concrete 3) movable 4) self-propelled The meaning of car in this explanation equates objective features. This explanation seems to be cognitive, because it is related to knowledge. But it is not the cognitive linguistics we are studying. The cognitive linguistics we mean is not based on logical knowledge, but on practical and empirical knowledge. The logical view cannot explain the phrasal verb break down, because the phrase is used as a metaphor, which is excluded from the study of the logical view. 3.3 Explanation with the experiential view 1) Meaning is in our experience. a. attribute Before we explain this sentences with the experiential view, we must first pay special attention to the term attribute, which is frequently used in cognitive linguistics so it is a very important term in cognitive linguistics, especially when we explain language with the experiential view. Simply to say, attribute is characteristic of an entity (Word Web) What are the attributes of car? The answer is on P. F37, where you can see that the concept car has 9 attributes in all. Both our communal experience and personal or subjective experience are related to the word car. Of the 9 attributes, some are shared by most peoples experience and some others are very personal and subjective. The attributes of first love affair and injury are very personal and subjective. The meaning of car in this explanation is communal experience + personal (subjective) experience. These two types of experience equate attributes in all. b. Two important aspects of attributes a) Attributes are from laypersons We should notice that such attributes are collected from laypersons (common people/ persons who are not trained in linguistics) instead of dictionaries or scholars. So to a great extent, these attributes can reflect the way every language user perceives the world and interacts with it. b) Attributes help identify similar objects To every word dictionaries give definitions which are sometimes not helpful. The word car, for example, is defined as 4-wheeled motor vehicle. This definition cannot help people identify a 3-wheeled motor vehicle when they see such a vehicle for the first time. But it is obvious that attributes from laypersons can do that. People can identify it as a car because it agrees with some of the attributes. That is why the experiential view is superior to the logical view. 2) Meaning in figurative language. The original meaning for break down is fall apart, collapse. When it is used to express the event that the car suddenly stops working, it is a metaphorical use because the car does not become separated into pieces or fragments. Metaphor is no longer regarded as just a rhetorical device. In logical view, metaphor is excluded from the study of linguistics. But the fact is that metaphor is frequently used by everyone in their utterances every day. It goes without saying that heart as in Beijing is the heart of China is a metaphor. So is the eye of heaven in Sonnet 18 by Shakespeare. Everybody can identify this kind of metaphor. But metaphor in cognitive linguistics is in a much broader sense. The following are also examples of metaphor: (1) You appear at the head of the list. (2) the leg of a table (3) He got into trouble yesterday. In literature, get into trouble is no metaphor at all, but in cognitive linguistics it is because trouble is regarded as a container. Actually, people tend to make use of metaphor. In a metaphorical way it is easier to express abstract ideas or unfamiliar things. So concrete concepts are used to express abstract concepts and familiar things are used to indicate unfamiliar things. We can say, metaphor is pervasive in language, that is to say, figurative language is everywhere in language. If a linguistic theory pays no attention to metaphor or figurative language, such a theory can be said not to be immature. A good linguistic theory should explain every phenomenon in language. Cognitive linguistics is such a linguistic theory which makes a study of every aspect of meanings in language. 4. Prominence view The prominence view concerns the selection and arrangement of the information that is expressed. It is actually an explanation of how the information in a clause is selected and arranged. Compare the following pairs of examples: (4) a. The garden is swarming with bees. b. Bees are swarming in the garden. In traditional grammar, the two sentences are regarded as the same in meaning. But in fact they do not mean the same because prominence in the sentences are different. (4a) means that there are bees everywhere in the garden, but (4b) means that there are bees in part of the garden. 5. Attentional view The attentional view is an approach based on the assumption that what we actually express reflects which parts of an event attract our attention (p. F39). That is, an utterance reflects what is paid attention to. In language the same event can be expressed in different ways because of our different attentions. Take learn and teach for example: (5) a. Xiao Li learned English from Mr. Smith. b. Mr. Smith taught Xiao Li English. When the speakers attention is on Xiao Li, he uses the first sentence, but when his attention is on Mr. Smith, he uses the second one. In paraphrase, we usually tell the students that the two sentences are in the same meaning, but in the attentional view, their meanings are in fact different. 6. The contents of this book 1) This book contains six chapters, with Chapters 1, 2, 3 introducing the experiential view, Chapter 4 dealing with the prominence view, Chapter 5 discussing the attentional view and Chapter 6 briefing iconicity, grammaticalization, lexical change and language teaching. 2) This book talks chiefly about the three views of cognitive linguistics. It is important for you to make clear the three views first, because they are initiated by cognitive linguistics and therefore they are basic theories of cognitive linguistics. And then you should also go on to study iconicity, grammaticalization, lexical change and language teaching. Though iconicity and grammaticalization are not initiated by cognitive linguistics, many scholars are working at them because the two approaches can also explain many language problems. The last section of this book also talks about foreign language learning and teaching. For us, this section may be helpful. But until now, few people have discussed this topic, so what is presented in the last section of this book is just the potential of cognitive approach to foreign language teaching. We can benefit from the discussion about foreign language learning and teaching in this book so as to begin with our own researches of English teaching and learning. Exercises: What is cognitive linguistics? Whats the difference between the logical view and the experiential view? How do you understand the term attribute in cognitive linguistics? Talk about attributes of bicycle.